Table of Contents
- A Relay-Based Interpretation of Light Propagation and Cosmological Phenomena
A Relay-Based Interpretation of Light Propagation and Cosmological Phenomena
Reconsidering Redshift, the Speed of Light, and the Cosmic Microwave Background
Abstract
This paper proposes a mechanical transmission model for light propagation through all media- including space- using a mechanism conceptually similar to Newton’s Cradle. It treats the transmission of photon energy not as the travel of discrete particles through a vacuum, but as a sequential transfer of momentum through a structured medium. This reinterpretation offers a coherent, unified explanation for several cosmological observations: the redshift of light from distant sources, the apparent finite visibility of the universe, and the nature and structure of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). It challenges the assumption of an expanding universe and presents an alternative framework grounded in continuous, local energy exchange.
1. Introduction
The nature of light and its role in cosmology have long stood at the intersection of theoretical physics and astronomical observation. Since the early 20th century, physicists have recognised that light exhibits both wave-like and particle-like behaviours, a phenomenon known as wave–particle duality. Quantum mechanics offers a mathematical description of this duality through quantum electrodynamics, yet it leaves the mechanistic foundation of these behaviours ambiguous. What does it mean, physically, for a single entity to behave like both a discrete particle and a spatially extended wave? This question remains unresolved.
Concurrently, modern cosmology has constructed an expansive theoretical framework grounded in general relativity and supported by observational data, most notably the redshift of distant galaxies and the presence of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). According to this standard model, the redshift is attributed to the expansion of space itself, and the CMB is interpreted as a pervasive background signal shaped by long-term energy redistribution.
However, to reconcile theory with observation, the standard model has come to rely on several unobservable entities: dark matter, invoked to explain gravitational anomalies; dark energy, to account for accelerating expansion; and cosmic inflation, to resolve the uniformity and flatness problems of the early universe. These constructs, though mathematically convenient, have not been directly detected and raise foundational questions about the completeness of the model.
The redshift–distance relationship, in particular, has historically been assumed to reflect a Doppler-like effect embedded in the stretching of spacetime. But this assumption may be circular: it interprets redshift through the lens of expansion without independently demonstrating that light itself cannot degrade over vast distances.
The model proposed in this paper begins with an alternative principle: that light does not travel through empty space as a free particle, but is instead transmitted via sequential momentum transfer through a structured, invisible medium. This process is conceptually similar to the behaviour of Newton’s Cradle- a device in which kinetic energy is transmitted through a line of stationary spheres, producing motion at the far end without the intermediate spheres moving significantly.
Such a medium may be constituted by dark matter or another sub-quantum substrate. In this view, space is not empty but filled with a field or structure capable of relaying photonic energy via discrete, localised interactions. The speed of light, the redshift of distant galaxies, and the CMB itself may all be emergent consequences of this transmission mechanism, rather than properties of spacetime geometry.
This reinterpretation seeks to address several open questions in physics and cosmology by introducing a mechanistic model for light propagation, one that remains compatible with observation but avoids unverified cosmological assumptions. The relay model has implications not only for how we understand light, but also for how we interpret distance, time, and the structure of the universe.
2. Detailed Mechanics of the Relay Model
The central mechanism proposed in this model is that light is not a freely propagating particle moving through a vacuum but rather a relay of energy transfer through a structured medium. This medium could be composed of dark matter or another fine-scale material substrate, operating analogously to how atoms transmit energy in transparent materials. The fundamental concept is that of momentum relay- a sequential interaction between adjacent elements in the medium that preserves the overall direction and coherence of the wavefront, even though no single entity travels the entire distance.
2.1 Analogy with Glass and Other Transparent Materials
When light enters a transparent material such as glass or water, it slows down- not because its intrinsic velocity changes, but because it is continually absorbed and re-emitted by the atoms or molecules of the medium. These delays, occurring at each interaction point, result in a lower effective speed of propagation. Importantly, the atoms do not move with the light; instead, they act as intermediate energy carriers.
This is directly comparable to Newton’s Cradle: kinetic energy introduced at one end is passed through stationary spheres to the other end, without the internal spheres translating significantly. The energy travels; the medium remains largely at rest.
2.2 Extension to Space
In standard physics, the vacuum of space is not truly empty. Quantum field theory acknowledges that space is filled with fluctuating virtual particles, and gravitational anomalies strongly imply the presence of non-baryonic dark matter. In the relay model, these invisible entities form the transmission network through which light propagates- not as a self-sufficient particle, but as a local excitation passed along a chain of intermediaries.
Each element in the medium acts as a node that:
- Detects and absorbs a quantum of energy (momentum or excitation),
- Temporarily stores or polarises in response,
- Re-transmits the energy to the adjacent node,
- Returns to a ground or rest state.
The net result is the illusion of a photon travelling through space, when in reality only local excitations propagate. Light, in this view, is not motion through emptiness but momentum hopping through a medium.
2.3 Medium Requirements
For the relay model to function:
- The medium must be continuous at a scale smaller than the wavelength of light.
- It must support elastic or quasi-elastic local interactions capable of preserving wavefront coherence.
- The constituent particles or field elements must possess resonant behaviour aligned with photon energy bands.
- The wavelength of the transmitting medium (or interaction scale) must be no greater than approximately one-third of the transmitted wavelength to permit resolution. This would explain the progressive drop-off in detection sensitivity at higher frequencies, such as gamma rays, where the medium cannot resolve the wave.
2.4 Transmission Damping and Energy Loss
Because no mechanical system is perfectly efficient, energy is not transmitted without cost. Over astronomical distances, the cumulative result of trillions of tiny inefficiencies at each relay point is a gradual loss of energy, observed as redshift. This is not due to motion or expansion, but to friction-like damping in the energy chain, leading to lower frequency (longer wavelength) light.
This principle applies universally:
- In glass, this is observed as absorption and scattering losses.
- In air, energy is lost to molecular vibration and thermalisation.
- In space, energy is lost to the medium- presumed here to be dark matter- which does not re-emit in visible spectra but may contribute to the cosmic background signal.
3. Mathematical Framework
This section outlines a conceptual mathematical framework that may describe light propagation as a relay phenomenon through a structured medium. The objective is not to derive definitive equations at this stage, but to indicate the types of relationships and parameters that could formalise the model for future investigation.
3.1 Relay Propagation Equation (General Form)
In this model, the transmission of light is governed not by a particle's velocity in free space, but by a sequence of localised energy exchanges between adjacent nodes in a medium. If we denote the average relay rate (number of energy transfers per second) as ν_r, and the average spacing between the transfer sites as d, then the effective speed of light c can be expressed as:
c = ν_r · d
This equation is consistent with the idea that the speed of light arises from the rate of handover between interaction sites. In dense media such as glass, ν_r may be reduced or d effectively increased due to temporary storage or delays in re-emission.
3.2 Photon Energy Loss over Distance
As photons undergo repeated energy transfer, each interaction may be accompanied by a tiny, cumulative energy loss ΔE, even if re-emission is nearly perfect. Over cosmological distances, this degradation results in a measurable redshift.
Let:
- E₀ be the initial energy of the photon,
- N be the number of relay events over a distance L,
- δ be the fractional energy loss per event (δ ≪ 1).
Then, the total energy E after N events is approximately:
E = E₀ · (1 − δ)^N ≈ E₀ · e^(−δN)
If N = L/d, where d is the average spacing between interaction sites:
E(L) = E₀ · e^(−δL/d)
This exponential energy decay is compatible with the observed redshift-distance relation, potentially mimicking Hubble’s Law but without invoking expansion. The wavelength elongation is thus:
λ(L) = λ₀ · e^(δL/d)
3.3 Spectral Cutoff and Medium Resolution
A medium composed of micro-particles or coherent field elements cannot resolve electromagnetic waves shorter than its structural scale. This provides a natural high-frequency cutoff and may explain the declining detectability of high-energy photons over distance.
Assume the medium has a characteristic interaction length l_m. For efficient relay, the transmitted wavelength λ must satisfy:
λ ≥ 3 · l_m
This constraint ensures that the medium can resolve the wave sufficiently to support coherent energy transfer. Photons with wavelengths below this threshold may either be scattered incoherently or absorbed without re-emission.
3.4 Damping Term and Refractive Analogue
In transparent materials, the index of refraction n reflects the effective speed reduction due to relay delays. Similarly, in this model, the refractive index becomes a function of the interaction delay τ at each relay point:
n = c₀ / c = c₀ / (d/τ) = (c₀ · τ) / d
Where:
- c₀ is the maximum possible transmission speed (e.g., in an ideal vacuum),
- τ is the average dwell time per relay,
- d is the inter-site spacing.
This expression links the macroscopic property n to microscopic features of the medium, and may allow this model to connect with standard optical behaviour in media.
4. In-Depth Sections on Observables
A model that proposes an alternative mechanism for light propagation must ultimately be judged by its explanatory and predictive power. This section examines how the relay model accounts for key cosmological observations, including redshift, the visibility horizon, and the structure of the cosmic microwave background. Where applicable, it highlights divergences from the standard model and introduces unique features of the relay hypothesis.
4.1 Redshift–Distance Relationship
The redshift of light from distant galaxies is central to modern cosmology. In the standard model, redshift is attributed to the metric expansion of space, interpreted through Hubble’s Law. In the relay model, by contrast, redshift arises from cumulative energy loss as photons are transmitted via a lossy medium. This loss is continuous and local- not dependent on cosmic scale factors or velocity but on the number of energy handovers.
This leads to a redshift–distance relation that is approximately exponential at large distances, mimicking but subtly diverging from the linear form of Hubble's Law. Observations at extreme redshifts (z > 7) may reveal deviations that could distinguish between the models if examined with sufficient precision.
4.2 Visibility Horizon and Energy Dissipation
Because each energy transfer in the relay medium is slightly lossy, there exists a natural horizon beyond which light becomes undetectable. This visibility limit is not imposed by the finite age of the universe but by the cumulative degradation of photonic energy into undetectable wavelengths.
At sufficiently large distances, photons redshift into the far-infrared or microwave domain, eventually reaching a thermal equilibrium indistinguishable from background noise. This boundary defines the observable universe in this model and may differ in shape and depth from the standard cosmological horizon.
4.3 Cosmic Microwave Background and Present-Day Structure
The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is conventionally described as relic radiation from the recombination epoch, the point at which background radiation becomes detectable. In the relay model, however, the CMB arises from the accumulated degradation of photon energy over immense distances and time. It represents a photonic ground state- the endpoint of redshift evolution rather than a snapshot of the early universe.
Interestingly, the fine anisotropies in the CMB, typically interpreted as density fluctuations in the early plasma, bear striking similarities to the present-day large-scale structure of matter. If the CMB is a product of prolonged energy accumulation shaped by intervening matter distributions, then its structure is a reflection of current, not primordial, arrangements. This would invert the causality typically assumed in standard cosmology.
4.4 Dipole Nature of the Medium and Transmission Gaps
A distinctive implication of the relay model is the need for a transmission medium composed of substructures capable of directional energy exchange. One plausible candidate is a dipole-shaped particle or field configuration. Dipoles possess an intrinsic orientation, which may determine whether energy is passed forward or absorbed without relay.
In this context:
- Variability in dipole alignment may result in temporary or localised transmission gaps.
- Misaligned regions could account for anisotropies in the CMB or directional differences in light intensity.
- Polarisation effects observed in starlight and CMB could arise naturally from interaction with such a dipolar medium.
These effects would be absent in models treating the vacuum as an isotropic and structureless expanse, offering a potentially testable divergence between the relay model and standard interpretations. The dipolar structure may also explain why certain wavelengths are more readily attenuated than others, and why light transmission is sensitive to coherence across large-scale regions.
5. Counterarguments Addressed
Any alternative model of cosmology must withstand scrutiny and address existing objections. This section considers the most common critiques that might be levelled against the relay model and provides responses that distinguish it from earlier or less complete theories.
5.1 How This Is Not Simply 'Tired Light'
The relay model superficially resembles 'tired light' theories proposed in the early 20th century, which also suggested that light loses energy over long distances. However, tired light lacked a physical mechanism and could not account for the observed time dilation in supernova light curves or the fine structure of the CMB.
The relay model is fundamentally different:
- It provides a mechanical, medium-based energy transmission mechanism analogous to Newton’s Cradle.
- It predicts wavelength-dependent loss behaviour and directional anisotropies.
- It incorporates photon–medium interactions that can explain both redshift and polarisation effects.
- It explains why distant supernovae still show coherent spectra and timing- because local relays maintain coherence even as energy slowly dissipates.
5.2 Compatibility with General Relativity
General Relativity (GR) remains one of the most successful theories of gravitation and large-scale dynamics. The relay model does not reject GR but rather reinterprets some of its consequences. In this model, apparent relativistic phenomena such as gravitational lensing or time dilation may be attributed to variations in medium density, refractive index, or relay rate- without requiring spacetime curvature as the causal explanation.
This perspective is compatible with gravitational observations but challenges the idea that vacuum is structureless. It opens the possibility that some effects attributed to geometry are instead emergent properties of the energy transmission medium.
5.3 Energy Conservation and Hydrogen Genesis
A common objection to energy-loss models is the apparent violation of conservation laws: if photons lose energy as they travel, where does that energy go?
In the relay model, energy is not destroyed - it is transformed. Each interaction in the photon’s transmission chain results in a minute energy reduction. Accumulated over cosmic distances, these losses become significant, and the energy is redistributed into other physical forms:
- Some energy is emitted as diffuse, long-wavelength radiation, contributing to the pervasive microwave background.
- Some becomes internal excitation within the transmission medium, manifesting as microscopic vibrations or rotational states - akin to thermal agitation.
- Critically, some is invested into the creation of free hydrogen atoms.
This final outcome has transformative implications. The universe’s most basic and abundant element - hydrogen - is proposed here not as a primordial leftover but as a continuous product of light-energy degradation. As photons traverse the medium, some of their energy becomes available for assembling or liberating neutral hydrogen.
In this view:
- The supply of hydrogen is ongoing, replenished by the constant degradation of starlight and galactic emissions.
- Its distribution may correlate with paths of intense or prolonged photon flux.
- Hydrogen becomes a direct outcome of photonic momentum transfer - a cosmological recycling mechanism.
This offers a natural explanation for the widespread presence of hydrogen throughout space, and more than that, positions it as the foundational precursor to complexity. With hydrogen in place, the conditions emerge for star formation, molecular bonding, and - eventually - the chemistry of life.
The relay model thus preserves energy conservation not through abstract symmetry, but through physical transformation. The energy of light is not lost; it is reborn - as heat, as background radiation, and most importantly, as the first building block of matter itself.
6. Conclusion
This paper has outlined a comprehensive alternative model of light propagation grounded in mechanical principles of energy relay, supported by a structured transmission medium. The model explains the apparent redshift of distant light sources, the finite observational horizon, and the nature of the cosmic microwave background without invoking cosmic expansion, dark energy, or inflationary scenarios.
By likening photon transmission to a Newton’s Cradle, this theory roots electromagnetic propagation in tangible, localised energy exchanges rather than abstract field quantisation. This provides a physically intuitive mechanism for wave–particle duality, explaining both the coherence of wave-like interference and the discreteness of particle detection.
6.1 Philosophical Implications: Space Is Not Empty
A key philosophical shift introduced by this model is the rejection of empty space as a vacuum. Instead, it posits that space is pervaded by a structured, detectable medium- likely dark matter- that makes possible the transmission of energy in the form of light. This medium is not passive; it shapes the energy it transmits, defines the limits of observation, and participates in the evolution of cosmic signals.
In this light, space is no longer a void but a medium rich in physical consequence- more akin to a field of interconnected nodes than a blank canvas. The universe is not expanding into nothing; it is embedded within a vast, complex lattice of transmission potential.
6.2 Revisiting Ether Concepts
Although the idea of an all-pervading medium recalls 19th-century ether theories, this model is not a simple revival. It avoids the classical ether's problems by not requiring a fixed rest frame or luminiferous rigidity. Instead, the transmission medium may be relativistic, dynamic, and interactive, consistent with the existence of dark matter fields or sub-quantum granularities.
Rather than being disproven by Michelson–Morley-type experiments, this model suggests those experiments were insensitive to a medium that interacts only at the quantum level- undetectable by mechanical displacement but active in photonic transmission.
6.3 Call for Experimental Re-evaluation
If the relay model holds merit, it opens new directions for experimental cosmology. Rather than attempting to detect dark matter only through gravitational effects, we might also consider its optical role:
- Mapping redshift anomalies to potential medium inhomogeneities
- Re-examining polarisation shifts and diffraction at cosmic scales
- Reconstructing the CMB as a thermodynamic consequence of continuous light degradation
- Measuring speed-of-light fluctuations in intergalactic voids
These experimental avenues may yield insights into the medium itself, its structure, and the physics of light as a local, mechanical process.
6.3 Authorship note
For medical reasons, an AI writing tool (ChatGPT) was used to assist with the structuring, formatting, and editorial preparation of the text. All scientific ideas, models, and interpretations are original to the author.
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